Before there was another of our universe, but one in which we live - is flat. These two discoveries in 2010 turned the presentation of the evolution of human space exploration. Scientists
have shown that the mass of the universe is composed of 70 percent of
the mysterious "dark energy" that accelerates its expansion. If both theories are confirmed, this could be a new step in understanding the world.
The first discovery was made by one of the most brilliant physicists of our time - Roger Penrose of Oxford University. He asks the question: what preceded the Big Bang, in which according to the dominant theory formed the time, matter and space?The studies found evidence of Penrose another universe that preceded ours. In
general, according to scientists, the development of the universe is
cyclical: the universes are born, die and are born again from its ashes
as, living periods that a physicist named "eons." His theory can explain why the universe was initially very orderly, thus allowing a very complex objects.A second study published in Nature, had Christian Marinoni and Edlin Buzzi, French physicists at the University of Provence. It returns us to the long-forgotten theory of Albert Einstein that our universe is flat. At the time, Einstein abandoned it, finding a mistake. However, it is a form of the universe used to explain the existence of "dark energy" - the main driving forces of the universe. French researchers have shown that the mass of the universe is 74 per cent of this energy, which accelerates its expansion.Today is dominated by the theory that the universe originated 13.7 billion years ago from one point of greatdensity, which in the Big Bang in the first moments of existence was a "hot soup" of the atoms in the non-free particles. The
temperature of this "soup" was a thousand million degrees (these
conditions have recently been successfully reproduced in the Large
Hadron Collider - LHC). Having
been born, the universe began to expand rapidly and cool, the particles
began to form first the simplest atoms (hydrogen), and the force of
gravity for a long time working on it to merge the atoms in the matter
of stars and galaxies.One
of the most pressing issues - the question of why the Big Bang
expansion rate of the universe not only slowed, but the increases? As a result, scientists have concluded that it is highly dependent on the mass of the substance contained. If
the total mass of matter in the universe is sufficient to ensure that
the force of gravity (which is the greater, the greater the mass) has
overcome the initial centrifugal force of the Big Bang, then the
universe will stop expanding and may even cause it to clot - a collapse,
which scientists call the big crunch. However,
if the total weight is not enough, nothing can stop the expansion of
the universe, it will strive to become a big black void, which
eventually will go out the last star.
It remains to measure the mass of the universe, but science is met with many surprises. The first is that the ordinary matter of which are galaxies, stars and planets, and that there is as light and other radiation is measured, is only 5 percent of the total mass of the universe, which is absolutely not enough to slow down its run. Another 25 percent correspond to different "type of matter," which can not directly be detected by our instruments, because nothing radiates. This matter is known as "dark." We know where it is located (so-called "black holes"), because it can measure changes in gravity, but no one has ever been able to "see" it. One can only speculate as to which of the particles it may contain.Indeed, and what properties should have these particles? Clearly, they should not break down into other, more light, otherwise they would have had to break up a long time during the existence of the universe. This fact suggests that nature has a new, undiscovered until the conservation law, which prohibits these particles decay. The analogy here with the law of conservation of electric charge: an electron - is the lightest particle with electric charge, which is why it does not decay into lighter particles (such as neutrinos and photons).Further, the dark matter particles interact very weakly with our substance, otherwise they would have been detected in terrestrial experiments. Strictly speaking, this knowledge of scientists about these interesting particles ends and begins virgin land speculation and assumptions.So, with the dark matter component are the same, 25 percent, something clear. But what are the other 70 percent? Scientists can not yet give a definite answer to this question and use the term "dark energy". However, we know about it even less than that of dark matter.The most unusual in all this is that dark energy in a certain sense of anti-gravity experience. Due to this expansion of the universe is not slowing down and speeding up. Such a pattern, generally speaking, does not contradict the general theory of relativity, but for the dark energy should have a special property - a negative pressure. This distinguishes it from conventional forms of matter. It is no exaggeration to say that the nature of dark energy - the main mystery of fundamental physics of the XXI century. Although a candidate for this role already - the usual, known to all the vacuum. However, its nature is still quite mysterious.It is expected that power determines the rate of increase in the takeoff of the universe. It is this dark energy is investigated Penrose and scientists from France. Penrose analyzed the data obtained from the satellite WMAP (which measures the microwave radiation that permeates the entire universe and being followed by the Big Bang). He discovered the structure of distribution in the form of concentric circles, which can be explained as traces of the existence of other universes (the imposition of the old to the new light). This means that our universe is one in a series of many, and the time will come when she will die and be reborn as a result of the new Big Bang. Before the "death" the universe will be "smooth and linear."This conclusion is confirmed by Buzzi and Marinoni, who proved, by measuring the distortion of light coming from the 500 pairs of galaxies that we live in a flat universe, not curved or spherical, as many thought. Based on the postulate that the geometric measurements can be used to determine the composition of the universe, scientists have studied the distribution of the relative orientation of pairs of galaxies, traded around each other. In a universe without dark energy, this distribution would be spherically symmetric, that is, the number of pairs oriented in any direction, it would be the same.Observations showed that in fact the farther away from Earth are pairs of galaxies, the distribution was more skewed in their orientation - and more couples were located along the line of sight from Earth. Also, if the universe were spherical or curved, then we would see an image of galaxies deformed, looked as if a metal ball and saw there the distorted face. In flat space, there is no distortion, as has been noted.What is dark matter or hidden mass? A dark energy?Hidden mass (in cosmology and astrophysics and dark matter, dark matter) - the common name set of astronomical objects inaccessible to direct observations with modern astronomy (ie it does not emit electromagnetic or neutrino radiation of sufficient intensity for observation), but observed indirectly by the gravitational effects exerted by on visible objects.The general problem of hidden mass consists of two problems:* Astrophysics, that is the contradiction of the observed mass of gravitationally bound objects and systems such as galaxies and clusters, and their observable properties determined by gravitational effects;* Cosmology - the contradiction of the observed cosmological parameters obtained by the astrophysical data of the average density of the universe.The nature and composition of dark matterIn addition to direct observation of gravitational effects of dark matter there are a number of objects, which direct observation is difficult, but which may contribute to the composition of dark matter. At the present time are considered objects of baryonic and nonbaryonic nature: if the first are well-known astronomical objects, as candidates in the second discusses the neutrino strapelki and hypothetical elementary particles, following the classical quantum chromodynamics (axions) and the supersymmetric extension of quantum field theories.To explain the deviation of the rotation velocities of galactic objects on Keplerian should assume the presence of massive dark halos of galaxies. For massive galaxies the halo objects are slaboizluchayuschie compact objects, especially low-mass stars - brown dwarfs, or very massive substars yupiteropodobnye planet whose mass is not sufficient to initiate fusion reactions in their interiors, cooled white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes.What is this?What we know today about the dark matter component of 95% of the mass of the universe? Almost nothing. But I still do know. First of all, there is no doubt that dark matter exists - this is amply demonstrated by the facts cited above. And we do know that dark matter exists in several forms. After the beginning of the XXI century as a result of long-term observations in the experiments of SuperKamiokande (Japan) and SNO (Canada) found that the neutrino mass is, it became clear that from 0.3% to 3% of 95% dark matter is long been familiar neutrinos - though their mass is very small, but the number in the universe about one billion times greater than the number of nucleons in each cubic centimeter contains an average of 300 neutrinos. The remaining 92-95% consists of two parts - the dark matter and dark energy. Small fraction of dark matter is ordinary baryonic matter, constructed from the nucleon, are responsible for the balance, seems to be some unknown massive weakly interacting particle (the so-called cold dark matter).Baryonic dark matterA small (4-5%) of dark matter - this is a common substance that does not emit little or no intrinsic radiation emitted, and therefore invisible. The existence of multiple classes of objects can be regarded as experimentally confirmed. Sophisticated experiments based all on the same gravitational lensing, have led to the discovery of the so-called massive compact galoobektov, that is located on the periphery of the galactic disk. This required to monitor the millions of distant galaxies for several years. When a massive dark body passes between the observer and a distant galaxy, its brightness for a short time decreases (or increases, as the dark body acts as a gravitational lens). As a result of painstaking search for such events have been identified. The nature of massive compact galoobektov not entirely clear. Rather, it is either cooled stars (brown dwarfs), or a planet like object is not associated with the stars and traveling through the galaxy on their own. Another representative of the baryonic dark matter - in the newly discovered galaxy clusters by X-ray astronomy, the hot gas, which does not light in the visible range.Non-baryonic dark matterAs the main candidates for the nonbaryonic dark matter are the so-called WIMP (shortening of Weakly Interactive Massive Particles - weakly interacting massive particles). Feature of the WIMP is that they almost do not manifest themselves in interaction with ordinary matter. That's why they have a real invisible dark matter, and that is why they are extremely difficult to detect. Mass WIMP must be at least ten times the mass of the proton. WIMP searches are conducted many experiments over the past 20-30 years, but despite all efforts, they still were not detectedOne idea is that if such particles exist, then the Earth in its motion, along with the Sun in its orbit around the galactic center has to fly through the rain, consisting of a WIMP. Despite the fact that the WIMP is an extremely weakly interacting particle, some very small probability to interact with ordinary atoms it is still there. At the same time in special facilities - very sophisticated and expensive - a signal can be detected. The number of such signals must be changed during the year, since moving in its orbit around the Sun, the Earth changes its speed and direction of motion relative to the wind, consisting of a WIMP. The experimental group of DAMA, an Italian working in the underground Gran Sasso Laboratory, reported on the observed annual variations in count rate signals. However, other groups have not confirmed these results and the question, in essence, remains open.Another method of searching for WIMP based on the assumption that, over billions of years of its existence, a variety of astronomical objects (Earth, the Sun, the center of our Galaxy) to capture the WIMP, which accumulate in the center of these objects, and annihilate each other, give rise to the neutrino flux . Attempts to detect the excess of the neutrino flux from the center of the Earth towards the Sun and the galactic center were made on the underground and underwater neutrino detectors, MACRO, LVD (Gran Sasso Laboratory), NT-200 (Lake Baikal, Russia), SuperKamiokande, AMANDA (Scott Station -Amundsen South Pole), but have not yet led to a positive result.Experimental searches for WIMP actively pursuing as accelerators of elementary particles. In accordance with a famous Einstein's equation E = mc2, roughly that energy is equivalent to the mass. Consequently, accelerating a particle (eg proton) to a very high energy and pitting it with another particle, one can expect the pair production of other particles and antiparticles (including WIMP), total mass equal to the total energy of the colliding particles. But the accelerator experiments have not yet led to a positive result.Dark energyOn the dark energy, we can say even less than that of the dark matter. First, it is uniformly distributed over the universe, in contrast to ordinary matter and other forms of dark matter. In galaxies and clusters of galaxies it as much out of them. Second, it has several very strange properties, which can be understood only by analyzing the equations of the theory of relativity, and interpret their solutions. For example, anti-gravity dark energy tests: due to its presence increases the rate of expansion. Dark energy as it pushes itself, accelerating at the same time and the scattering of ordinary matter, collected in galaxies. And dark energy has negative pressure, whereby a force in the material, preventing its extension.The main candidate for dark energy - a vacuum. The vacuum energy density does not change as the universe expands, which corresponds to a negative pressure. Another candidate - hypothetical superweak field, called quintessence. Hopes for a clarification of the nature of dark energy is associated primarily with the new astronomical observations. Progress in this direction will surely bring a radically new knowledge to humanity, because in any case, dark energy must be a very unusual substance, totally unlike that with which it had physics so far.So, our world is over 95% of something, which we know almost nothing. There are various ways to treat this beyond any doubt the fact. It can cause anxiety that always accompanies the meeting with something unknown. Or disappointment, because such a long and difficult path of building a physical theory describing the properties of our world, has led to the observation: most of the universe is hidden from us and unknown to us.
The first discovery was made by one of the most brilliant physicists of our time - Roger Penrose of Oxford University. He asks the question: what preceded the Big Bang, in which according to the dominant theory formed the time, matter and space?The studies found evidence of Penrose another universe that preceded ours. In
general, according to scientists, the development of the universe is
cyclical: the universes are born, die and are born again from its ashes
as, living periods that a physicist named "eons." His theory can explain why the universe was initially very orderly, thus allowing a very complex objects.A second study published in Nature, had Christian Marinoni and Edlin Buzzi, French physicists at the University of Provence. It returns us to the long-forgotten theory of Albert Einstein that our universe is flat. At the time, Einstein abandoned it, finding a mistake. However, it is a form of the universe used to explain the existence of "dark energy" - the main driving forces of the universe. French researchers have shown that the mass of the universe is 74 per cent of this energy, which accelerates its expansion.Today is dominated by the theory that the universe originated 13.7 billion years ago from one point of greatdensity, which in the Big Bang in the first moments of existence was a "hot soup" of the atoms in the non-free particles. The
temperature of this "soup" was a thousand million degrees (these
conditions have recently been successfully reproduced in the Large
Hadron Collider - LHC). Having
been born, the universe began to expand rapidly and cool, the particles
began to form first the simplest atoms (hydrogen), and the force of
gravity for a long time working on it to merge the atoms in the matter
of stars and galaxies.One
of the most pressing issues - the question of why the Big Bang
expansion rate of the universe not only slowed, but the increases? As a result, scientists have concluded that it is highly dependent on the mass of the substance contained. If
the total mass of matter in the universe is sufficient to ensure that
the force of gravity (which is the greater, the greater the mass) has
overcome the initial centrifugal force of the Big Bang, then the
universe will stop expanding and may even cause it to clot - a collapse,
which scientists call the big crunch. However,
if the total weight is not enough, nothing can stop the expansion of
the universe, it will strive to become a big black void, which
eventually will go out the last star.It remains to measure the mass of the universe, but science is met with many surprises. The first is that the ordinary matter of which are galaxies, stars and planets, and that there is as light and other radiation is measured, is only 5 percent of the total mass of the universe, which is absolutely not enough to slow down its run. Another 25 percent correspond to different "type of matter," which can not directly be detected by our instruments, because nothing radiates. This matter is known as "dark." We know where it is located (so-called "black holes"), because it can measure changes in gravity, but no one has ever been able to "see" it. One can only speculate as to which of the particles it may contain.Indeed, and what properties should have these particles? Clearly, they should not break down into other, more light, otherwise they would have had to break up a long time during the existence of the universe. This fact suggests that nature has a new, undiscovered until the conservation law, which prohibits these particles decay. The analogy here with the law of conservation of electric charge: an electron - is the lightest particle with electric charge, which is why it does not decay into lighter particles (such as neutrinos and photons).Further, the dark matter particles interact very weakly with our substance, otherwise they would have been detected in terrestrial experiments. Strictly speaking, this knowledge of scientists about these interesting particles ends and begins virgin land speculation and assumptions.So, with the dark matter component are the same, 25 percent, something clear. But what are the other 70 percent? Scientists can not yet give a definite answer to this question and use the term "dark energy". However, we know about it even less than that of dark matter.The most unusual in all this is that dark energy in a certain sense of anti-gravity experience. Due to this expansion of the universe is not slowing down and speeding up. Such a pattern, generally speaking, does not contradict the general theory of relativity, but for the dark energy should have a special property - a negative pressure. This distinguishes it from conventional forms of matter. It is no exaggeration to say that the nature of dark energy - the main mystery of fundamental physics of the XXI century. Although a candidate for this role already - the usual, known to all the vacuum. However, its nature is still quite mysterious.It is expected that power determines the rate of increase in the takeoff of the universe. It is this dark energy is investigated Penrose and scientists from France. Penrose analyzed the data obtained from the satellite WMAP (which measures the microwave radiation that permeates the entire universe and being followed by the Big Bang). He discovered the structure of distribution in the form of concentric circles, which can be explained as traces of the existence of other universes (the imposition of the old to the new light). This means that our universe is one in a series of many, and the time will come when she will die and be reborn as a result of the new Big Bang. Before the "death" the universe will be "smooth and linear."This conclusion is confirmed by Buzzi and Marinoni, who proved, by measuring the distortion of light coming from the 500 pairs of galaxies that we live in a flat universe, not curved or spherical, as many thought. Based on the postulate that the geometric measurements can be used to determine the composition of the universe, scientists have studied the distribution of the relative orientation of pairs of galaxies, traded around each other. In a universe without dark energy, this distribution would be spherically symmetric, that is, the number of pairs oriented in any direction, it would be the same.Observations showed that in fact the farther away from Earth are pairs of galaxies, the distribution was more skewed in their orientation - and more couples were located along the line of sight from Earth. Also, if the universe were spherical or curved, then we would see an image of galaxies deformed, looked as if a metal ball and saw there the distorted face. In flat space, there is no distortion, as has been noted.What is dark matter or hidden mass? A dark energy?Hidden mass (in cosmology and astrophysics and dark matter, dark matter) - the common name set of astronomical objects inaccessible to direct observations with modern astronomy (ie it does not emit electromagnetic or neutrino radiation of sufficient intensity for observation), but observed indirectly by the gravitational effects exerted by on visible objects.The general problem of hidden mass consists of two problems:* Astrophysics, that is the contradiction of the observed mass of gravitationally bound objects and systems such as galaxies and clusters, and their observable properties determined by gravitational effects;* Cosmology - the contradiction of the observed cosmological parameters obtained by the astrophysical data of the average density of the universe.The nature and composition of dark matterIn addition to direct observation of gravitational effects of dark matter there are a number of objects, which direct observation is difficult, but which may contribute to the composition of dark matter. At the present time are considered objects of baryonic and nonbaryonic nature: if the first are well-known astronomical objects, as candidates in the second discusses the neutrino strapelki and hypothetical elementary particles, following the classical quantum chromodynamics (axions) and the supersymmetric extension of quantum field theories.To explain the deviation of the rotation velocities of galactic objects on Keplerian should assume the presence of massive dark halos of galaxies. For massive galaxies the halo objects are slaboizluchayuschie compact objects, especially low-mass stars - brown dwarfs, or very massive substars yupiteropodobnye planet whose mass is not sufficient to initiate fusion reactions in their interiors, cooled white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes.What is this?What we know today about the dark matter component of 95% of the mass of the universe? Almost nothing. But I still do know. First of all, there is no doubt that dark matter exists - this is amply demonstrated by the facts cited above. And we do know that dark matter exists in several forms. After the beginning of the XXI century as a result of long-term observations in the experiments of SuperKamiokande (Japan) and SNO (Canada) found that the neutrino mass is, it became clear that from 0.3% to 3% of 95% dark matter is long been familiar neutrinos - though their mass is very small, but the number in the universe about one billion times greater than the number of nucleons in each cubic centimeter contains an average of 300 neutrinos. The remaining 92-95% consists of two parts - the dark matter and dark energy. Small fraction of dark matter is ordinary baryonic matter, constructed from the nucleon, are responsible for the balance, seems to be some unknown massive weakly interacting particle (the so-called cold dark matter).Baryonic dark matterA small (4-5%) of dark matter - this is a common substance that does not emit little or no intrinsic radiation emitted, and therefore invisible. The existence of multiple classes of objects can be regarded as experimentally confirmed. Sophisticated experiments based all on the same gravitational lensing, have led to the discovery of the so-called massive compact galoobektov, that is located on the periphery of the galactic disk. This required to monitor the millions of distant galaxies for several years. When a massive dark body passes between the observer and a distant galaxy, its brightness for a short time decreases (or increases, as the dark body acts as a gravitational lens). As a result of painstaking search for such events have been identified. The nature of massive compact galoobektov not entirely clear. Rather, it is either cooled stars (brown dwarfs), or a planet like object is not associated with the stars and traveling through the galaxy on their own. Another representative of the baryonic dark matter - in the newly discovered galaxy clusters by X-ray astronomy, the hot gas, which does not light in the visible range.Non-baryonic dark matterAs the main candidates for the nonbaryonic dark matter are the so-called WIMP (shortening of Weakly Interactive Massive Particles - weakly interacting massive particles). Feature of the WIMP is that they almost do not manifest themselves in interaction with ordinary matter. That's why they have a real invisible dark matter, and that is why they are extremely difficult to detect. Mass WIMP must be at least ten times the mass of the proton. WIMP searches are conducted many experiments over the past 20-30 years, but despite all efforts, they still were not detectedOne idea is that if such particles exist, then the Earth in its motion, along with the Sun in its orbit around the galactic center has to fly through the rain, consisting of a WIMP. Despite the fact that the WIMP is an extremely weakly interacting particle, some very small probability to interact with ordinary atoms it is still there. At the same time in special facilities - very sophisticated and expensive - a signal can be detected. The number of such signals must be changed during the year, since moving in its orbit around the Sun, the Earth changes its speed and direction of motion relative to the wind, consisting of a WIMP. The experimental group of DAMA, an Italian working in the underground Gran Sasso Laboratory, reported on the observed annual variations in count rate signals. However, other groups have not confirmed these results and the question, in essence, remains open.Another method of searching for WIMP based on the assumption that, over billions of years of its existence, a variety of astronomical objects (Earth, the Sun, the center of our Galaxy) to capture the WIMP, which accumulate in the center of these objects, and annihilate each other, give rise to the neutrino flux . Attempts to detect the excess of the neutrino flux from the center of the Earth towards the Sun and the galactic center were made on the underground and underwater neutrino detectors, MACRO, LVD (Gran Sasso Laboratory), NT-200 (Lake Baikal, Russia), SuperKamiokande, AMANDA (Scott Station -Amundsen South Pole), but have not yet led to a positive result.Experimental searches for WIMP actively pursuing as accelerators of elementary particles. In accordance with a famous Einstein's equation E = mc2, roughly that energy is equivalent to the mass. Consequently, accelerating a particle (eg proton) to a very high energy and pitting it with another particle, one can expect the pair production of other particles and antiparticles (including WIMP), total mass equal to the total energy of the colliding particles. But the accelerator experiments have not yet led to a positive result.Dark energyOn the dark energy, we can say even less than that of the dark matter. First, it is uniformly distributed over the universe, in contrast to ordinary matter and other forms of dark matter. In galaxies and clusters of galaxies it as much out of them. Second, it has several very strange properties, which can be understood only by analyzing the equations of the theory of relativity, and interpret their solutions. For example, anti-gravity dark energy tests: due to its presence increases the rate of expansion. Dark energy as it pushes itself, accelerating at the same time and the scattering of ordinary matter, collected in galaxies. And dark energy has negative pressure, whereby a force in the material, preventing its extension.The main candidate for dark energy - a vacuum. The vacuum energy density does not change as the universe expands, which corresponds to a negative pressure. Another candidate - hypothetical superweak field, called quintessence. Hopes for a clarification of the nature of dark energy is associated primarily with the new astronomical observations. Progress in this direction will surely bring a radically new knowledge to humanity, because in any case, dark energy must be a very unusual substance, totally unlike that with which it had physics so far.So, our world is over 95% of something, which we know almost nothing. There are various ways to treat this beyond any doubt the fact. It can cause anxiety that always accompanies the meeting with something unknown. Or disappointment, because such a long and difficult path of building a physical theory describing the properties of our world, has led to the observation: most of the universe is hidden from us and unknown to us.
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